How Napoleon’s Egypt campaign sparked a printing revolution in the Arab world

Special How Napoleon’s Egypt campaign sparked a printing revolution in the Arab world
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A view of the Bulaq Printing Press in Cairo, which is celebrated by Egypt’s state library, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, as “the main force" in the "historical transformation that transferred Egypt from the Dark Ages of ignorance and backwardness and into the age of knowledge, freedom and awareness.” (Photo courtesy of Bibliotheca Alexandrina)
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Updated 04 May 2025
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How Napoleon’s Egypt campaign sparked a printing revolution in the Arab world

How Napoleon’s Egypt campaign sparked a printing revolution in the Arab world
  • Greatest legacy of the 1798 Napoleonic invasion of Egypt lies not in what the French took, but in what they left behind
  • Rare books on display at Abu Dhabi International Book Fair reveal printing roots of Egypt’s modern intellectual awakening

LONDON: On Sunday, July 1, 1798, a vast fleet of ships appeared off the Egyptian city of Alexandria. Aboard the flagship Orient was the French general Napoleon Bonaparte, still six years away from being proclaimed emperor of France but fresh from a series of military victories in Europe and determined to undermine Britain’s influence in Egypt and the Middle East.

With him were 50,000 men, hundreds of horses, numerous artillery pieces and, incongruously, 200 members of the Commission des Sciences et des Arts, a group including engineers, mathematicians, astronomers, geographers, writers, artists — and 22 printers.

Back in France, between 1809 and 1829 the survivors of this group of savants would produce the 37-volume Description de l’Egypte, a triumphant catalogue of all things Egyptian, ancient and modern.




The port city of Rashid, or Rosetta, is located on the Nile Delta where French soldiers discovered the famous stone stele in 1799 - key to deciphering Egyptian scripts. (Getty Images)

Their achievement would not be shared by Napoleon’s army. A month after the landing, virtually all of Napoleon’s ships were destroyed at the Battle of the Nile by a British fleet commanded by Horatio Nelson.

The following year Napoleon and a few men returned to France in secret. The general he left in charge, Jean-Baptiste Kleber, was assassinated a few months later by an Aleppo-born student living in Cairo. 

The remains of the French army, decimated by disease and endless conflict, surrendered to British forces in 1801 and, under the terms of an ignominious treaty, were ferried back to France on the enemy’s ships. 

IN NUMBERS:

• 50,000 Men who accompanied Napoleon to Egypt.

• £30,000 Price tag of Expedition de Syrie jusqu’a la prise de Jaffa.

• 1820 Year in which Bulaq Press was established in Cairo.

To rub salt into the French wounds, many of the Egyptian antiquities that had been looted by Napoleon’s troops and scholars fell into British hands. Some, including the Rosetta Stone, the ancient granite stele inscribed with a decree in three languages that allowed the cracking of the code of Egyptian hieroglyphs, found their way to the British Museum, where they remain to this day.

But arguably the greatest legacy of the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt lies not in what the French took, but in what they left behind — the art of printing with movable type.

Some of the products of this unintended consequence of Napoleon’s ill-fated Egyptian adventure can be seen this week at the Abu Dhabi International Book Fair — an extraordinary collection of rare books and pamphlets that together tell a fascinating story.




The Abu Dhabi International Book Fair. (Supplied)

“Aware of the printing press’s potential as a tool for governance and propaganda, Napoleon brought with him advanced French printing technology — something entirely new to Egypt,” said Pom Harrington, the owner of London-based Peter Harrington Rare Books.




Pom Harrington, the owner of London-based Peter Harrington Rare Books. (Supplied)

Just days after landing near Alexandria, Napoleon’s team of printers established the Imprimerie orientale et francaise, under the direction of the linguist and orientalist Jean-Joseph Marcel and the Marc Aurel, the 18-year-old son of a printer and bookseller.

It was, incidentally, Jean-Joseph Marcel who first recognized the third script on the Rosetta stone as Egyptian Demotic, which proved to be the ancient linguistic key to unravelling the mystery of hieroglyphics. 

A first-edition copy of one of their first publications, a pamphlet containing seven reports of expeditions against Ottoman forces in Syria, is at the show.




This picture taken on July 26, 2022 shows a close-up view of the cartouche of the Ptolemaic dynasty Pharaoh Ptolemy V "Epiphanes" (210-180 BC) inscribed with the rest of the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic text in the upper portion of the Rosetta Stone, on display at the British Museum in London. (AFP)




This picture taken on July 23, 2022 shows a view of the Rosetta Stone at the British Museum in London. (AFP)

The £30,000 price tag of Expedition de Syrie jusqu’a la prise de Jaffa (Expedition from Syria to the capture of Jaffa) reflects its extreme rarity. No copies of the pamphlet are known to exist in institutional libraries, none has ever appeared at auction and the manuscript is not even listed in Albert Geiss’ exhaustive Histoire de l’Imprimerie en Egypte, published by the Institut Francais d’Archeologie Orientale in Cairo in 1907.

Following the French victory over Ottoman forces at the Battle of the Pyramids on July 21, the press was relocated to Cairo, where it was renamed the Imprimerie nationale du Caire. 

Another valuable book on show in Abu Dhabi is an extremely rare first-edition copy of the first Arabic dictionary to be printed in the Arabic world. The Vocabulaire francais-arabe, contenant les mots principaux et d’un usage plus journalier (French-Arabic vocabulary, containing the main words and those of more everyday use) was printed between September 1798 and September 1799.




The first Arabic dictionary published in the Arabic world, printed by the French press in Cairo in 1798 or 1799. (AFP)

The final eight pages of common phrases reflect the imperial expectations of those who would use the dictionary to communicate with their temporary Egyptian subjects. Alongside more typical phrases, some of which would be of use to modern travellers today, such as “I am hungry” and “I am going to Cairo,” is the altogether less common instruction “Etrillez mon cheval” — “Brush my horse.”

One of the most fascinating documents produced in Cairo by the French press was an account of the interrogation and trial of Suleiman Al-Halabi, the young man who stabbed to death Jean-Baptiste Kleber, Napoleon’s successor in Egypt as commander of the French army. 

Printed in 1800, a year before the end of the French occupation, of the 500 copies that were printed of the Recueil des pieces relatives a la procedure et au jugement de Soleyman El-Hhaleby, assassin du general en chef Kleber (“Collection of documents relating to the procedure and judgement of Soleyman El-Hhaleby, assassin of general Kleber”), only 14 survive.




An account of the investigation and trial of Suleiman al-Halabi, executed in 1800 for the assassination of the commander of the French army in Egypt. (Supplied)

Suleiman Al-Halabi’s execution on June 17, 1800, the day of his victim’s funeral, was a gruesome affair; after his right forearm was burnt to the bone, he took four hours to die after being impaled on a metal spike. 

The Cairo press was shut down after the French withdrew, and the printing presses were sent back to France, “but its impact was lasting,” said Harrington.

“The French conquerors could not have foreseen that the introduction of printing with movable types would lead to a revolution in printing in the Arab world, demonstrating to Egyptian scholars the transformative potential of print.”

The influence of the short-lived French printing house lingered on through individuals including Nicolas Musabiki, whose father Yusuf had been trained during the French occupation. 

Nicolas later played a crucial role in the Bulaq Press, established in Cairo in 1820 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Ottoman viceroy and the ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848.




The Bulaq Press, established in Cairo in 1820 by Ottoman viceroy Muhammad Ali Pasha, was inspired by the French press that was brought along by Napoleon in his conquest of Egypt. (Photos courtesy of Bibliotheca Alexandrina)

“Ali Pasha is seen as the founder of modern Egypt and was clearly inspired by Napoleon’s printing presses,” said Harrington.

“In 1815 he sent the Syrian Nicolas Musabiki to Italy to study type-founding and printing, and ordered three presses from Milan, along with paper and ink, also from Italy. 

“The establishment of the Bulaq Press meant that he could print manuals for the military, official guidebooks for the administration, and textbooks for new schools.” 

Bulaq’s presses “primarily used the Naskh script, valued for its legibility and formality, making the new texts easily readable.”

Among the rare finds featured in the Abu Dhabi International Book Fair is the Alfiyat Ibn Malik,  a 13th-century Arabic textbook. (Supplied)In Europe, printing with movable type had begun in the 15th century — the Gutenberg Bible was printed in Germany in 1455.




An 1835 Bulaq edition of the classic Arabic grammar written in the 13th century by Muhammad ibn Malik, an eminent grammarian and specialist in Islamic law. (Supplied)

“The delay in printing in the Arab world was certainly linked to the notion of calligraphy not only as an art form, but also as an expression of spirituality,” said Harrington.

“It wasn’t until the introduction of lithographic techniques that the beauty of Arabic script could be adapted to printing more easily.”

The Bulaq Press printed its first book, an Italian-Arabic dictionary, in 1822. But one of its greatest triumphs is on show at Abu Dhabi: the first complete edition in Arabic of the Thousand and One Nights, printed in 1835.




Two pages from the Galland manuscript, the oldest text of The Thousand and One Nights. Arabic manuscript, back to the 14th century from Syria in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

The first edition of the collection of Arabic folk tales printed anywhere in the Arab world, fewer than a dozen copies are known to exist in libraries. Privately held copies are even rarer; this copy, from the collection of the French historian and orientalist Charles Barbier de Maynard, who died in 1908, is priced at £250,000.

The impact of the Bulaq Press is celebrated by Egypt’s state library, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, which in an online history credits it with having played “an essential role in disseminating science and knowledge throughout the country. 

“As books and legible material became available, a new class of intellectuals emerged, to later form the basis for a comprehensive modernization of the whole society.

“Other outcomes included an increase in the number of private schools and the emergence of female education. As the class of intellectuals broadened, self-expression and free opinions appeared in the press and daily newspapers.” 

The Bulaq Press “was the main force behind this historical transformation that transferred Egypt from the Dark Ages of ignorance and backwardness and into the age of knowledge, freedom and awareness.”

The advantages of modern printing with movable type, demonstrated by the Bulaq Press, were quickly appreciated elsewhere in the Arab world. The first printing press in Makkah was set up in 1882, and the first newspaper — called Hijaz — followed there in 1908. 




King Fahd Glorious Qur'an Printing Complex in Madinah, Saudi Arabia. (SPA/File photo)

In 1949, a specialist publishing house was set up in Makkah to produce the first copies of the holy Qur’an to be printed in Saudi Arabia — a task that previously had been left to printers in Egypt. 

In 1984, the King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qur’an opened in Madinah and has since produced hundreds of millions of copies of the holy book in Arabic and in multiple translations.

The Bulaq Press, also known as the Amiria Press, survives to this day. Its operations were paused during the British occupation of Egypt, but in 1956 it was revived by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the then Egyptian president, and has continued publishing books and other materials as part of the country’s ministry of trade and industry.
 

 


Syrians’ asylum requests in Europe drop to decade low

Syrians’ asylum requests in Europe drop to decade low
Updated 22 min 2 sec ago
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Syrians’ asylum requests in Europe drop to decade low

Syrians’ asylum requests in Europe drop to decade low
  • Asylum applications filed by Syrians in the European Union dropped to their lowest in over a decade in February following the ouster of Bashar Assad, the EU’s asylum agency said Wednesday

BRUSSELS: Asylum applications filed by Syrians in the European Union dropped to their lowest in over a decade in February following the ouster of Bashar Assad, the EU’s asylum agency said Wednesday.
Data from the European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA) showed Syrians lodged 5,000 requests in the 27-nation bloc plus Switzerland and Norway in February, down 34 percent on the previous month.
“The latest asylum figures show how important stability in other regions is for Europe,” said Magnus Brunner, the EU’s migration commissioner.
Longtime Syrian ruler Assad was toppled by Islamist-led rebels in December after more than a decade of civil war.
Hundreds of thousands of Syrians who had sought shelter abroad have since returned home, according to the United Nations.
Overall in February, the EU’s 27 states, Switzerland and Norway received about 69,000 asylum applications, following a decreasing trend that started in October 2024, the EUAA said.
Syrians, who long accounted for the most applicants, were the third largest group, behind Venezuelans and Afghans.
France was the main recipient nation, followed by Spain, and Germany — which had been the top destination for years.


UAE schools to teach AI in government schools from kindergarten up

UAE schools to teach AI in government schools from kindergarten up
Updated 39 min 2 sec ago
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UAE schools to teach AI in government schools from kindergarten up

UAE schools to teach AI in government schools from kindergarten up

DUBAI: UAE Prime Minister Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid announced on Sunday that artificial intelligence lessons would be introduced for public-school children of all ages starting the next academic year.

In a tweet on X, Sheikh Mohammed wrote that the UAE cabinet had approved “the final curriculum to introduce ‘Artificial Intelligence’ as a subject across all stages of government education in the UAE, from kindergarten to grade 12, starting from the next academic year.

“Our goal is to teach our children a deep understanding of AI from a technical perspective, while also fostering their awareness of the ethics of this new technology,” he continued.

“Our responsibility is to equip our children for a time unlike ours, with conditions different from ours.” 

The step aims to equip students with the essential knowledge and skills to understand AI concepts appropriate for each academic level. 

UAE Minister of Education Sarah Al-Amiri said this integration of AI into classrooms reflects the “UAE government’s future-focused vision,” according to a statement on WAM News Agency.

The UAE will be among the first countries to introduce AI in school curricula, the statement added.

The AI curriculum will cover seven key areas, including foundational concepts, data and algorithms, software use, ethical awareness, real-world applications, innovation and project design, and policies and community engagement. 


Mother and son killed in flash floods in southern Jordan

Mother and son killed in flash floods in southern Jordan
Updated 05 May 2025
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Mother and son killed in flash floods in southern Jordan

Mother and son killed in flash floods in southern Jordan
  • The Belgian pair went missing as heavy rain caused flash floods across the country

JORDAN: The bodies were evacuated from the area, and an official investigation into the incident has been launched to determine the circumstances surrounding the tragedy.

A major search and rescue operation had been launched in Jordan after flash floods ripped through vast parts of the country at the weekend.

Hundreds of tourists were evacuated on Sunday as the floodwaters continued to rise.

The Petra Development of Tourism and Region Authority said heavy rain triggered flash floods in the city on Sunday.

A Public Security Directorate spokesman said specialized teams of personnel from Civil Defense, local police directorates, and the Gendarmerie Forces, conducted extensive search operations under what they described as “challenging weather conditions and difficult terrain”.

“Their efforts extended over many hours before the two victims were found deceased”, the report added.

Yazan Mahadin, commissioner of Petra Archaeology Park and Tourism at PDTRA said most of 1,785 tourists that visited on Sunday had been evacuated.

A further 14 who were trapped by floodwaters in the Western Ma’an Police Directorate were rescued uninjured.

Meanwhile a separate team was sent to Tafileh to search for a teenager who went missing while herding sheep in the Hasa area. 

The areas evacuated by the civil defense were Al-Khazneh, the Siq, the Roman Soldier’s Tomb, the Monastery, and the slopes of Prophet Harun.

Ticket sales to all major tourist attractions were suspended as a safety precaution, and the PDTRA is encouraging people to avoid flood paths and low-lying areas.


Lebanese army seizes Captagon pills, equipment at Syrian border

Lebanese army seizes Captagon pills, equipment at Syrian border
Updated 05 May 2025
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Lebanese army seizes Captagon pills, equipment at Syrian border

Lebanese army seizes Captagon pills, equipment at Syrian border

CAIRO: The Lebanese Army seized large quantities of Captagon pills in a raid on a manufacturing plant on the Lebanese-Syrian border, the Lebanese News Agency reported on Monday. 

An army unit, supported by a patrol from the Directorate of Intelligence, seized large quantities of pills in addition to equipment for producing Captagon, along with raw materials used in drug manufacturing. 


Israel plans to capture all of Gaza under new plan, officials say

Israel plans to capture all of Gaza under new plan, officials say
Updated 32 min 47 sec ago
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Israel plans to capture all of Gaza under new plan, officials say

Israel plans to capture all of Gaza under new plan, officials say
  • The new plan would push hundreds of thousands of Palestinians to southern Gaza and likely exacerbate an already dire humanitarian crisis
  • Israel halted all humanitarian aid into Gaza, including food, fuel and water, setting off what is believed to the be the worst humanitarian crisis in nearly 19 months of war
  • The UN accuses Israel of wanting to control aid as a ‘pressure tactic’

TEL AVIV: Israel approved plans on Monday to capture the entire Gaza Strip and remain in the territory for an unspecified amount of time, two Israeli officials said, in a move that if implemented would vastly expand Israel’s operations in the Palestinian territory and likely bring fierce international opposition.
Israeli Cabinet ministers approved the plan in an early morning vote, hours after the Israeli military chief said the army was calling up tens of thousands of reserve soldiers.
The new plan, which the officials said was meant to help Israel achieve its war aims of defeating Hamas and freeing hostages held in Gaza, also would push hundreds of thousands of Palestinians to southern Gaza, what would likely exacerbate an already dire humanitarian crisis.
Since a ceasefire between Israel and Hamas collapsed in mid-March, Israel has unleashed fierce strikes on the territory that have killed hundreds. It has captured swathes of territory and now controls roughly 50 percent of Gaza. Before the truce ended, Israel halted all humanitarian aid into Gaza, including food, fuel and water, setting off what is believed to the be the worst humanitarian crisis in nearly 19 months of war.
The ban on aid has prompted widespread hunger and shortages have set off looting.
Israel is trying to ratchet up pressure on Hamas
The Israeli officials said the plan included the “capturing of the strip and the holding of territories.” The plan would also seek to prevent the militant Hamas group from distributing humanitarian aid, which Israel says strengthens the group’s rule in Gaza. It also accuses Hamas of keeping the aid for itself to bolsters its capabilities. The plan also included powerful strikes against Hamas targets, the officials said.
The officials said Israel was in touch with several countries about President Donald Trump’s plan to take over Gaza and relocate its population, under what Israel has termed “voluntary emigration” yet which has sparked condemnations from Israel’s allies in Europe and the Arab world.
One of the officials said the plan would be implemented gradually. Both officials spoke on condition of anonymity because they were discussing military plans.
For weeks, Israel has been trying to ratchet up pressure on Hamas and prompt it to show more flexibility in ceasefire negotiations. But international mediators trying to bring the sides toward a new deal have struggled to do so. Israel’s measures do not appear to have moved Hamas away from its negotiating positions.
The previous ceasefire was meant to lead the sides to negotiate an end to the war, but that goal has been a repeated sticking point in talks between Israel and Hamas. Israel says it won’t agree to end the war until Hamas is defeated. Hamas meanwhile has demanded an agreement that winds down the war.
Israel’s expansion announcement has angered families of the hostages. The Hostage Forum, which supports families, said on Monday that the plan puts every hostage at risk and urged Israel’s decision-makers to secure a deal and prioritize the hostages.
At a Knesset committee meeting Monday, Einav Zangauker, whose son Matan is being held hostage, called on soldiers “not to report for reserve duty for moral and ethical reasons.”
Israel wants to prevent Hamas from handling aid
The Israeli officials did not disclose details on how the plan seeks to prevent Hamas from involvement in aid distribution. One said the ministers had approved “the option of aid distribution,” without elaborating.
According to an internal memo circulated among aid groups and seen by The Associated Press, Israel told the United Nations that it will use private security companies to control aid distribution in Gaza. The UN, in a statement Sunday, said it would not participate in the plan as presented to it, saying it violates its core principles.
The memo, sent to aid organizations on Sunday, detailed notes from a meeting between the Israeli defense body in charge of coordinating aid to Gaza, COGAT and the UN.
Under COGAT’s plan, all aid will enter Gaza through the Kerem Shalom crossing, letting approximately 60 trucks enter daily and distributing 20 kilograms of aid parcels directly to people on the day of entry, although their contents were unclear as was how many people will have access to the aid.
The memo said the aid will be distributed at logistics hubs, which will be run by private security companies. The memo said that facial recognition will be used to identify Palestinians at the hubs and SMS alerts will notify people in the area that they can collect aid.
Aid workers say the plan to centralize aid, rather than delivering it to Palestinians where they are, will forcibly displace people.
The fighting has displaced more than 90 percent of Gaza’s population, often multiple times, and turned Gaza into an uninhabitable moonscape.
The UN accuses Israel of wanting to control aid as a ‘pressure tactic’
The UN said the plan would leave large parts of the population, including the most vulnerable, without supplies. It said the plan “appears designed to reinforce control over life-sustaining items as a pressure tactic – as part of a military strategy.”
The memo says that the US government has voiced clear support for Israel’s plan, but it’s unclear who would provide funding for the private military companies or the aid.
COGAT and the US Embassy in Jerusalem did not immediately respond to a request for comment.
Earlier this week, the AP obtained dozens of documents about aid groups’ concerns that the hubs could end up permanently displacing Palestinians and forcing them to live in “de facto internment conditions”.
Meanwhile, Israeli strikes across Gaza continued overnight, killing at least 17 people in northern Gaza, according to hospital staff. Strikes hit Gaza City, Beit Hanoun and Beit Lahiya and among the dead were eight women and children, according to staff at the Shifa hospital, where the bodies were brought.
The war in Gaza began when Hamas-led militants attacked southern Israel, killing 1,200 people and taking about 250 hostages. Israel says 59 captives remain in Gaza, although about 35 are believed to be dead.
Israel’s offensive has killed more than 52,000 people in Gaza, many of them women and children, according to Palestinian health officials, who do not distinguish between combatants and civilians in their count.
Israel occupied Gaza in the 1967 Mideast war and withdrew troops and settlers in 2005. Two years later, Hamas took over and has controlled the territory since.