What 8-million-year-old stalagmites reveal about Saudi Arabia’s lost green past

Special What 8-million-year-old stalagmites reveal about Saudi Arabia’s lost green past
Researchers at Northumbria University discovered there were multiple humid phases in central Arabia over millions of years. (Getty Images)
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Updated 27 April 2025
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What 8-million-year-old stalagmites reveal about Saudi Arabia’s lost green past

What 8-million-year-old stalagmites reveal about Saudi Arabia’s lost green past
  • Researchers discovered there were multiple humid phases in central Arabia that likely fed ancient river systems
  • These wet periods likely transformed arid deserts into green corridors for animal and early human migration out of Africa

LONDON: Two major surprises greeted researchers in the Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences at Northumbria University when they returned to the UK from Saudi Arabia with samples of ancient stalagmites collected in caves northeast of Riyadh.

The plan was to use the samples to identify specific humid phases in central Arabia over the past million years or so which would have temporarily “greened” the more usually arid region, transforming the so-called Saharo-Arabian Desert Barrier into a land bridge across which many mammalian species ­—­ including early humans — would have made the journey out of Africa.




Hubert Vonhof (right), geologist at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, and Alexander Budsky, scientist at the State Museum in Kärten, were part of the team that analyzed dripstones from Saudi Arabian caves. (Supplied)

The initial surprise was that the first, commonly employed technique they used to date such samples did not work.

Two different radiometric dating methods are used to date the calcium carbonate laid down in stalagmites — uranium-thorium (U-Th) and uranium-lead (U-Pb) — which both measure the extent to which radioactive isotopes in the material have decayed.

“At first we suspected the stalagmites might be quite a lot younger, so we used the uranium-thorium method,” said Monika Markowska, a senior research fellow in the Geography and Environmental Sciences Department at Northumbria University in Newcastle, England.

“This method is good only for about 600,000 years, and we kept finding we couldn’t date anything.”

Then came the second surprise, revealed in a paper published in the journal Nature this month.

“So, we switched to the uranium-lead method and all of a sudden it revealed just how old these stalagmites were,” she said.

“There was this sudden realization in the lab: ‘Oh my goodness, these are 8 million years old.’ It was quite a moment.”

At a stroke, the story of life in central Arabia had been pushed back more than 7 million years.

Stalagmites, stalactites and “flowstones,” known collectively as speleothems, are created on the floors, roofs and walls of caves by rainwater dripping through from the surface.




A cross-section of one of the stalagmites taken for analysis. (Supplied)

As water passes through the soil or rock above a cave, it collects minerals, including calcium carbonate. In the case of stalagmites, over many millennia, these minerals form conical towers, slowly growing up from the floor of the cave.

The age and rate at which these stalagmites have grown can be accurately measured using various methods of radiometric dating, which calculates a material’s age by measuring the presence of radioactive elements.

Until recently, evidence of environmental conditions in Arabia extended back only 450,000 years. But in 2020, a paper published in the International Journal of Earth, Climate and Life Interactions reported that analysis of stalagmites collected from caves in southern Arabia — Yemen and northern Oman — had pushed the record back 1.1 million years.

In that time, analysis of the stalagmites revealed there had been no fewer than 21 “pluvial periods” — periods of increased rainfall, creating “numerous opportunities” for early humans to migrate out of Africa and into Eurasia, unimpeded by the more typical periods of arid weather and desert conditions that otherwise acted as barriers to early human dispersal.

But, as the authors of the latest research report in Nature said, “although numerous humid phases occurred in southern Arabia during the past 1.1 million years, little is known about Arabia’s paleoclimate before this time.”

The new research has now pushed back the region’s hydroclimate record a further 7 million years, in the process revealing much earlier “recurrent humid periods characterized by increased water availability and vegetation cover.”

The caves selected for the study, located in the Al-Sulb Plateau, northeast of Riyadh, had been identified by the Saudi Geological Survey.




The Saudi Geological Survey (SGS) says there are over 150 caves recognized for their remarkable scientific significance in Saudi Arabia. (SPA)

“What drew us to this site was the fact that the modern landscape there is hyper arid, yet in the caves we see lots of evidence of stalactite and stalagmite growth,” said Markowska. “This means that it was wetter in the past because these just don’t form under the modern conditions.”

For “conservation reasons,” the paper gives only the general locations of the caves. However, the precise coordinates are available to some professional organizations and researchers from the Saudi Heritage Commission and the Saudi Geological Survey.

The story told by the 22 speleothems collected from the seven cave systems, all found within a 10 km radius, is an extraordinary one. Analysis of the samples has revealed a series of humid episodes over four distinct periods — between 0.86 and 1.37 million years ago (Ma), 2.01 and 2.29 Ma, 3.16 and 4.10 Ma, and 6.25 and 7.44 Ma.

This last humid episode occurred during what geologists classify as the Late Miocene. This is the period from which numerous fossils found further south, in the UAE, date — the remains of animals such as elephants, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, antelopes, hyenas and large carnivores, including saber-toothed cats, which have been unearthed in the Western Region of the emirate of Abu Dhabi.

These animals flourished there, according to a summary of decades of research published in 2012, thanks to “a very large river system flowing slowly through the area, along which was flourishing vegetation, including large trees.”

That river system may well have flowed from the interior of Arabia — and the fresh evidence from the caves northeast of Riyadh suggests the possibility that it was rainfall here that fed it.




Monika Markowska in the lab at Northumbria University. (Supplied)

“There is evidence in Arabia of rivers in the past, and certainly in the UAE fossils have been found where a river channel once ran,” said Markowska.

“But rivers can have very distant origins and the big thing about our paper is that for the first time we were able to determine that there was rainfall specifically in the center of the desert — evidence of actual rainfall in that area, rather than humidity from rivers that were sourced from distant locations.

“Before now, we knew a little bit about what was going on in the south of Arabia, that there were numerous humid phases going back over the past 1.1 million years. But we’ve been able to push that back to 8 million years, and this is for the center of the desert, where there was really no information before.”

The importance of this discovery is highlighted by the vast well of international specialist knowledge upon which the study drew. This is reflected in the list of the paper’s 31 co-authors, who include researchers and specialists from universities in the UK, Germany, Switzerland, Australia and the US.

It also includes the College of Tourism and Archaeology at King Saud University in Riyadh, the Kingdom’s Heritage Commission, Geotourism Department and the Saudi Geological Survey.

The paper thanks Prince Badr bin Abdullah bin Farhan Al-Saud, the Saudi minister of culture, for giving his permission for the research to be carried out, and acknowledges the vital role of the Heritage Commission in providing logistical and technical field support.




Prince Badr bin Abdullah bin Farhan, culture minister of Saudi Arabia. (SPA)

So far, as the paper makes clear, the “vertebrate fossil record of Arabia is scant,” with remains found only in two principal locations: The sandstone and mudstone Baynunah Formation in the UAE and the Nefud Desert in northwestern Saudi Arabia.

The fossils in the Nefud are “only” about 500,000 years old, and 6 million years younger than those from the Baynunah Formation, currently the only site where animal remains dating from the Late Miocene have been found.

But, said Markowska, the lack of fossil evidence from the same period in central Arabia “doesn’t necessarily mean there wasn’t fauna there at that time, but only that we haven’t found them yet.”

And, as the paper concludes, “considering our findings, it seems probable that movements between Africa and Eurasia would have taken place through the Arabian Peninsula, which, during humid phases, was likely characterized by well-watered grasslands and woodlands.”

Many of the animal species identified from fossilized remains in the UAE “would have been well suited for life in (central) Arabia during the wet episodes identified in our speleothem record. The scant fossil record aside, we suggest that Arabia probably acted as a hitherto unrecognized but important crossroad for biogeographic exchange between Africa and Eurasia over the past 8 million years.”

The researchers add that “the nature of these exchanges, and the exact role of Arabia in these, may only be elucidated with an improved fossil record.”

For now, a more pressing piece of research is underway, for the stalagmites of Saudi Arabia have more secrets to divulge.




Stunning view of Ain Heet cave, located in a mountain called Al-Jubayl in a small village in Wadi Al-Sulay, Riyadh.  Ain Heet is named after its entrance, which resembles the shape of the eye. The cave is formed with limestone. (AN file photo)

Finding out exactly what plants and trees thrived during the wet periods over the past 8 million years is key to understanding what species of herbivorous mammals — and, therefore, the meat-eaters that preyed upon them — might have existed in the once greener, lusher Saudi Arabia.

“This vegetation issue is our big next research question,” said Markowska.

“We have been able to identify these humid periods, and to identify what the dominant mechanisms for causing them were — basically, more moisture coming up from the south, during monsoon seasons. But we’re also very interested in this vegetation story.”

As speleothems grow, “they trap tiny amounts of pollen within their structure, and now we’re going to see if we can extract some ancient pollen from the speleothems, which is a technique we specialize in at Northumbria.”

This is a painstaking effort, “which involves a lot of microscope work. You extract the material, put it on a microscope slide and then count and identify the different pollen grains you find. I work with other colleagues who are experts on (ancient) pollen, and together I think we should be able to unwrap this other side of the story.”

 

 


Saudi pavilion at Expo 2025 highlights nation’s culture and artists

Saudi pavilion at Expo 2025 highlights nation’s culture and artists
Updated 09 July 2025
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Saudi pavilion at Expo 2025 highlights nation’s culture and artists

Saudi pavilion at Expo 2025 highlights nation’s culture and artists
  • Since opening in April, the studios have hosted more than 115 events

OSAKA: The Kingdom’s pavilion at Expo 2025 is showcasing contemporary Saudi Arabia artworks tailored for a Japanese audience, which is aimed at promoting cultural ties between the two countries.

The artworks are on show within two cultural studios that are also used to host workshops and exhibitions.

Since opening in April, the studios have hosted more than 115 events, including exhibitions and live performances, the Saudi Press Agency reported recently.

The events in the cultural spaces feature Saudi Arabia artists who showcase the Kingdom’s heritage.

Saudi Arabia’s pavilion at Expo 2025 is the second-largest after Japan. It has registered more than 1 million visits.

Expo 2025 Osaka began in April and will conclude in October.


Saudi Arabia to host cultural week in Osaka

Saudi Arabia to host cultural week in Osaka
Updated 09 July 2025
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Saudi Arabia to host cultural week in Osaka

Saudi Arabia to host cultural week in Osaka
  • Calligraphy, art and Japanese-Saudi photographic show from July 12-15

OSAKA: The Kingdom’s Ministry of Culture will host a Saudi Cultural Week in Osaka from July 12 to 15, which will highlight the nation’s rich heritage and showcase handmade products.

Taking place at the Expo Gallery EAST, the event coincides with the 70th anniversary of diplomatic ties between Japan and Saudi Arabia.

It will feature the Heritage Commission, the Royal Institute of Traditional Arts, and the Prince Mohammed bin Salman Global Center for Arabic Calligraphy.

Additionally, the King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives will present a series of photographs highlighting the cultural relations between the two nations.

Saudi Arabia’s Pavilion at Expo 2025 Osaka will feature more than 700 immersive cultural activities, showcasing the Kingdom’s innovation and heritage, the Saudi Press Agency reported recently.

The cultural week is a part of the Kingdom’s broader initiative to strengthen ties between Saudi Arabia, Japan and other nations.


Saudi crown prince meets Iranian foreign minister amid regional diplomacy push

Saudi crown prince meets Iranian foreign minister amid regional diplomacy push
Updated 08 July 2025
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Saudi crown prince meets Iranian foreign minister amid regional diplomacy push

Saudi crown prince meets Iranian foreign minister amid regional diplomacy push
  • Leaders discuss ties and regional stability
  • Prince Mohammed urges dialogue and diplomacy as means of resolving disputes

JEDDAH: Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman met with Iranian Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi and his delegation at Al-Salam Palace in Jeddah on Tuesday, the Saudi Press Agency reported.

Their meeting came as part of ongoing efforts to strengthen ties between the two countries and navigate a turbulent regional landscape.

 

 

During the meeting, Prince Mohammed and Araghchi reviewed the state of Saudi-Iranian relations and exchanged views on recent developments across the region.

The crown prince underscored the Kingdom’s hope that the current ceasefire agreement between Iran and Israel would help lay the groundwork for enhanced regional security and stability.

Reaffirming Saudi Arabia’s longstanding support for diplomatic solutions, the crown prince stressed the importance of dialogue in resolving regional disputes and reducing tensions.

For his part, Araghchi expressed gratitude for the Kingdom’s stance in condemning Israeli aggression, and praised Prince Mohammed’s personal commitment to promoting peace and stability in the Middle East.

The meeting was attended by several senior Saudi officials, including Minister of Defense Prince Khalid bin Salman bin Abdulaziz, Minister of Foreign Affairs Prince Faisal bin Farhan bin Abdullah, and National Security Advisor Musaed bin Mohammed Al-Aiban.

Earlier in the day, Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Faisal bin Farhan received his Iranian counterpart in Makkah, where the two officials also discussed bilateral relations and explored ways to foster regional cooperation.

Their talks focused on the evolving situation in the region and mutual efforts to safeguard security and stability.


Cabinet commends HRC adoption of resolution to protect children in cyberspace

Saudi Arabia’s Cabinet held a session on Tuesday. (SPA)
Saudi Arabia’s Cabinet held a session on Tuesday. (SPA)
Updated 08 July 2025
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Cabinet commends HRC adoption of resolution to protect children in cyberspace

Saudi Arabia’s Cabinet held a session on Tuesday. (SPA)
  • Crown prince briefed the Cabinet on the contents of his discussions with Indonesian president and phone call he received from German Chancellor Friedrich Merz

RIYADH: The Cabinet commended on Tuesday the Human Rights Council’s unanimous adoption of a resolution submitted by the Kingdom to protect children in cyberspace.

The resolution, submitted by Saudi Arabia, aims to protect children in cyberspace and is rooted in the global initiative “Child Protection in Cyberspace” launched by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman in October 2024.

The Cabinet said that Saudi Arabia maintaining its position as the top-ranked country in global cybersecurity according to this year’s edition of the International Institute for Management Development World Competitiveness Yearbook adds to a series of achievements made by this sector in record time.

Saudi Minister of State and Cabinet member Issam bin Saad bin Saeed said the Kingdom’s first-place ranking globally in the ICT Development Index 2025 issued by the International Telecommunication Union is a confirmation of the strength of the its digital infrastructure.

It was also testament to the attractiveness of its investment environment and the development of the local digital economy, which has reached SR 495 billion ($132 billion) in size, he added.

The Cabinet also discussed the Kingdom’s efforts and contributions at the international level to support multilateral action and enhance global economic growth rates, including continued cooperation with OPEC+ producers to maintain stability in oil markets.

The crown prince also briefed the Cabinet on the contents of his discussions with the President of Indonesia Prabowo Subianto and a phone call he received from German Chancellor Friedrich Merz.

 


Reimagining the road ahead in Saudi Arabia

As Saudi Arabia rethinks how cities function, the role of local digital infrastructure is becoming more central. (Supplied/SPA)
As Saudi Arabia rethinks how cities function, the role of local digital infrastructure is becoming more central. (Supplied/SPA)
Updated 08 July 2025
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Reimagining the road ahead in Saudi Arabia

As Saudi Arabia rethinks how cities function, the role of local digital infrastructure is becoming more central. (Supplied/SPA)
  • A Saudi-developed navigation platform signals a deeper shift in how smart cities are designed

JEDDAH: As cities such as Riyadh and Jeddah grow at an unprecedented pace, they face mounting pressures that come with rapid urban expansion: increased traffic, infrastructure demands, and changing mobility patterns.

These challenges have sparked new conversations — and innovations — to support evolving everyday life.

Among the latest digital tools to emerge is Balady+, a Saudi Arabia-developed navigation app that is gaining traction with more than 1 million downloads on Google Play according to the app’s listing.

As the country continues its digital transformation, mobility solutions such as Balady+ are becoming a part of the conversation on how to make urban environments more efficient, accessible and responsive. (Supplied)

Launched in May, the app offers a locally tailored alternative to global platforms such as Google Maps and Waze to address navigation needs across Saudi cities.

Developed by Balady, a subsidiary of NHC Innovation, the app’s features include real-time traffic updates, indoor navigation in malls and multistory buildings, and alerts for roadworks and speed bumps with accurate spatial and timing information.

FASTFACT

Balady+, a Saudi-developed navigation app, is gaining traction with more than 1 million downloads on Google Play.

A notable moment for the platform came during this year’s Hajj season, when Balady+ collaborated with the Royal Commission for Makkah City and Holy Sites to support pilgrims with an interactive mapping system.

Yasser Alobaidan, CEO of Balady+

Over 11,000 key landmarks — including mosque entrances and exits, surrounding streets, hospitals, Red Crescent stations, restrooms, fountains, and more than 160 critical facilities — were updated in real time to ease the flow of people through dense and high-pressure areas.

“Navigation apps aren’t just tools anymore; they’re daily essentials,” said Abdulrahman Al-Babtain, a Riyadh-based commuter who has been using Balady+ for the past two months.

“What makes this app more useful for me is how it reflects the real condition of roads, especially when it comes to closures or construction zones.”

“Navigation apps aren’t just tools anymore; they’re daily essentials,” said Abdulrahman Al-Babtain, a Riyadh-based commuter who has been using Balady+ for the past two months. (SPA)

Built with an artificial intelligence-powered search engine, the app has generated a mix of enthusiasm and thoughtful critique from users on app stores.

Many have praised its realistic 3D mapping, with comments including “extraordinary” and “custom made” to better visualize surroundings.

Some reviews highlight standout features such as the “snap and send” municipal reporting tool, with one user noting that a damaged road was fixed within 12 hours of being reported.

Adel Alzahrani, ROSHN executive director of community development charters

While one review described the app as a “decent alternative to Google Maps,” others note a learning curve for new users and hope for future updates that make the interface more user-friendly and inclusive.

According to Al-Babtain, speed-bump alerts and government data integrations are particularly helpful in avoiding unexpected delays during his daily commute.

“The GPS is smart, but what really matters is having the most current local info — and that’s where Balady+ wins,” he said.

If we design cities for cars, we get traffic. If we design cities for people, we get life.

Adel Alzahrani, ROSHN executive director of community development charters

For Adel Alzahrani, executive director of community development charters at ROSHN, the app is part of a larger conversation about urban design and mobility.

“We’re not just developing real estate — we’re influencing how people move, live, and interact. Mobility behavior starts with design. I often say the cities of the future won’t be shaped by concrete alone — they’ll be sculpted by intelligence, data, and empathy,” he said.

While international apps dominate global markets, Alzahrani — who has used them all — sees Balady+ as an attempt to address local needs through an initiative that is “culturally aware, government-backed, and citizen-focused.”

“If we design cities for cars, we get traffic. If we design cities for people, we get life,” he said.

As Saudi cities are increasingly digitized, apps such as Balady+ represent a broader shift in how people interact with their surroundings, not just as commuters but also data contributors and active participants in shaping smart urban systems.

Yasser Alobaidan, CEO of the app, told Arab News it was built on a combination of local and global technologies.

It was “created through 3D modelling programs for areas like Hajj camps, the Grand Mosque, the Prophet’s Mosque, and key landmarks across cities — and global technologies that convert residential and commercial buildings into 3D visualizations.”

“Work is currently underway to render the main roads across Saudi cities in 3D to provide drivers with a more realistic navigation experience,” he added.

Available on Android, iOS, and Huawei Store, it supports both Arabic and English, and features a voice assistant that guides users in both languages.

Alobaidan explained the technical challenges of rendering 3D environments, such the Grand Mosque and Hajj camps, on users’ mobile devices.

“Managing and optimizing the processing power and battery usage on users’ mobile devices when rendering 3D models was not easy.”

As the country continues its digital transformation, mobility solutions such as Balady+ are becoming a part of the conversation on how to make urban environments more efficient, accessible and responsive.

“Saudi Arabia stands at a unique moment. We have the chance to leapfrog the mistakes of car-first urbanism and become a global model of people-centered innovation — where design, policy, and technology converge to create cities that breathe, move, and serve with grace,” Alzahrani explained.

“It’s not just a digital tool, it’s a statement of intent. It tells us that Saudi Arabia isn’t just building smart cities — we’re designing smarter ways to live in them.”

Looking ahead, he said: “I’d love to see Balady+ connect with multimodal platforms, so users can seamlessly move between metro, bus, walking, or even autonomous shuttles.

“I’d also advocate for opening up APIs (Application Programming Interfaces), so urban developers and municipal agencies can build on top of the platform, creating custom layers for districts or temporary events.”

As the Kingdom rethinks how cities function, the role of local digital infrastructure is becoming more central.

Balady+ may not be the only tool in that transition, but it points to a growing appetite for locally developed, tech-driven solutions to urban challenges.

“It’s not following global models. It’s redefining them through a uniquely Saudi lens. And I think that’s something worth celebrating,” Alzahrani said.